Photo credit: The Jewish Museum, New York
The Literature of Judaism in the Hellenistic Period (New Testament Background, part-4)
(a) The Language of Judaism in the Hellenistic Period
Hebrew continued as the religious language after the exile. Many books written in this period in Hebrew came to light through the discoveries of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Aramaic was the colloquial and business language in Syria and Mesopotamia and was spoken in Palestine. It was developed as an administrative language in the Assyrian Empire. But after the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander, Aramaic continued as a second administrative language after Greek and was used as a business and colloquial language even during the Roman Empire. Aramaic was used for Jewish writings. Moreover, during the Hellenistic period, Greek became a more influential language, but Aramaic survived. Greek became prominent because of Greek colonization and the significance of Greek as a cultural language. In Palestine and the Diaspora, many Hebrew and Aramaic writings were translated into Greek, which was shared by many diaspora communities, and this process contributed to the later development of Christianity.
(b) The Septuagint
The term Septuagint (LXX) designates the Greek translation of the Old Testament. The Pentateuch was translated in the 3rd century BCE, and other books were translated in the 1st century BCE. Later, books like 3 and 4 Maccabees were added, which were unacceptable to the Hebrew canon fixed by Rabbinic Judaism around 100 CE. Martin Luther named such books, which are not included in the Hebrew canon but are included in the LXX, as Apocrypha—books that are not equal to Holy Scriptures but are useful for reading.
The translation of the Hebrew Bible was made for the use of synagogue worship. It became the basis for a new departure in Jewish theology. The LXX became the most significant factor in the process of Hellenization of Judaism. It also became a source of the theological language of Judaism and early Christianity. The influence of the LXX extended to the written versions of Old Testament history, apologetic and allegorical commentaries, and non-biblical writings. There are several recensions of the LXX, which show the relationship between the Hebrew text and the Greek text. The oldest recension may be the proto-Lucianic recension, which is closer to the Palestinian Hebrew text. The proto-Theodotionic recension, used by Josephus and Origen, follows the Babylonian Hebrew text. Further development of these recensions was seen in the translations of Theodotion, Aquila, and Symmachus. Moreover, the climax of these editions of the Greek Bible text is the Hexapla of Origen, where he puts together the various versions of the Old Testament with Alexandrian text-critical methods. Meanwhile, Lucian, the founder of the Antiochian School, published a new text of the LXX, which became the official text of the Old Testament in the Byzantine Church.
(c) The Literature of the Apocalyptic Movement
Daniel: It is the oldest and most influential apocalypse of the Hellenistic period, partially written in Hebrew and Aramaic after the desecration of the Jewish temple (167 BCE) by Antiochus IV and before his death (164 BCE). It was not written by Daniel, who was in the Babylonian kings’ court. It may have preserved older materials as part of the style of apocalyptic literature, where the apocalypse replaces a historical introduction with a prophetic presentation of past history, and the place of the announcement of curses and blessings is occupied by a visionary prediction of future events. Daniel assimilated mythological materials of Babylonian and Canaanite origin. This material was applied to the present situation: the Son of Man, a symbol of Israel as an expected ruler over the nations. This image presents in the eschatology of the Hasidic movement. Daniel is most influential in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.
1 Enoch: It is another influential apocalyptic writing in the Hellenistic period after Daniel. The Ethiopic translation was made in the 1st or 2nd century CE. A number of fragments of 1 Enoch were found in Qumran. The older part of 1 Enoch, which compiled the “Apocalypse of Weeks” and the “Apocalypse of Animals,” parallels a Daniel Apocryphon found in Cave IV of Qumran. 1 Enoch 1:9 is quoted in Jude 14f. 1 Enoch contains repeated interpretations of Genesis 6:1-4.
The Ascension of Moses: It is preserved only in a Latin translation of the Greek version, which depends on its Hebrew or Aramaic origin. The book can be dated to the 1st century CE, but the tradition behind it may be much older (from the 2nd century BCE). This book contains the last words of Moses before his ascension. It emphasizes the role of Levi and is very polemical against the Hasmoneans, Herodians, and Pharisees.
The War Scroll: It was composed in the 1st century CE. It talks about the holy war of the sons of light against the sons of darkness.
Sibylline Oracles: This name is derived from Greek sibyls—recorded oracles of inspired prophetic women. The oriental sibylline books were produced in competition with the officially recognized Greek Sibyls. Among these competitors, a Jewish Sibyl produced writings in Greek during the 2nd century BCE, and it was later revised by Christians and finally grew into a total of 14 books. It contains apologetic motifs, propaganda for monotheism, and apocalyptic predictions. The history of the world is seen from the perspective of the divine plan.
Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs: This book is preserved in Greek translation of Hebrew (and Aramaic) originals from the pre-Christian period. Its content includes each of the sons of Jacob giving admonitions to his children and eschatological concepts such as the expectation of the royal messiah from Judah, who is subordinated to the priestly messiah from Levi.
Manual of Discipline and Damascus Document: The organization of the apocalyptic sect as a people of covenant produced several Essene documents that contain covenant formulas. The Manual of Discipline and the Damascus Document are such kinds of writings. The Manual of Discipline from Qumran, written in Hebrew, contains the basic legislation for the community of the new covenant, liturgical instructions for the admission of new members, regulations for the festival of covenant renewal, regulation of the community, instructions about the two spirits, and the order of discipline. The Ruler of the Congregation, another document recorded on the backside of the Manual of Discipline, contains instructions for the convocation of Israel for the messianic banquet. The Damascus Document was discovered in 1896 and published in 1910. Later, the same document was discovered at Qumran, which enabled the determination of its origin. It might have been written for the “People of the New Covenant in the Land of Damascus.” It emphasizes that only the Zadokites faithfully adhered to the covenant of God.
Peshers: The Essenes produced commentaries on the Bible, known as Peshers. Among these, the Peshers on Habakkuk and Nahum are notable. The interpretation connects biblical passages to recent past or present events; notably, the names of Demetrius III and Antiochus are mentioned in the Pesher. Moreover, the library of Qumran preserved a Florilegium, which is an exegesis of biblical passages. The hypothesis that Christians used florilegia of scriptural passages is based on the Qumran book called Testimonia.
Hymns (Hodayot): It is a collection of several thanksgiving hymns, each introduced by the formula “I praise you, Lord.” It has allusions to the Psalms of the Old Testament and uses traditional phrases. The hymns express personal and religious experiences.
Psalms of Solomon: It is a collection of hymns in Greek, but it might have been composed in Hebrew, probably in Palestine during 60-30 BCE. It reflects pietism with the self-confidence of the righteous person and sharp criticism of sinners. Messianic and apocalyptic views are expressed in it.
(d) The History of Israel as Reflected in the Jewish Literature of the Hellenistic Period
Book of Jubilees: It is partially preserved in Latin, and the complete version exists in Ethiopic translation. Both may be derived from a Greek version of Hebrew origin. It is a reproduction of Genesis 1 to Exodus 12 in a style of midrash, cast in the form of a revelation by the “Angel of the Presence.” The origin of this book may be ascribed to the Essenes because of the large number of fragments of this book found in Qumran and the use of the solar calendar.
Genesis Apocryphon: It was found in Qumran and might have been written between 50 BCE and 50 CE. It is an apologetic and edifying expansion of the first book of the Bible. Similar interests can be found in Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities, which is preserved in Latin and might be derived from the Greek version of the Hebrew original. It contains biblical history from Adam to Saul. Beliefs such as resurrection, angelology, and the election of Israel are contained in this book.
Fragments of Alexander Polyhistor: His works preserve extracts from Greco-Jewish authors who wrote about the figures in the book of Genesis and the history of Israel. Though his works are lost, quotations are cited in the writings of Josephus, Clement of Alexandria, and Eusebius.
Joseph and Asenath: It is a unique employment of the stories of the patriarchs, probably written during the 1st century BCE in Egypt. It is best called an allegorical romance. It alludes to the true community of God who kept bread, cup, and ointment as symbols of the sacraments of the true community.
Hecateus: Hecateus wrote about the recent past in the early Hellenistic period. His work was not preserved, but Josephus quoted him.
1 and 2 Maccabees: Jason of Cyrene wrote the history of the Maccabean revolt. Though it is lost, extracts can be found in 2 Maccabees, an epitome of his work among the five books he wrote. He used reliable sources. 2 Maccabees was probably written in 100 BCE or a little later and treats the years 175-161 BCE, with a report about the events during Seleucus IV (187-175 BCE) as a backdrop for the revolt. 1 Maccabees deals with the same subject as 2 Maccabees but covers a longer period, from 175-134 BCE. These are valuable historical sources.
Esther: It is part of the Hebrew canon, composed with legends and fairy tale motifs. The LXX translation added further legendary features. The purpose of this book is to promote the festival called Purim.
Judith: It is preserved in the Greek form of the original Hebrew in the LXX. It tells the story of the salvation of the people of God through the deed of a beautiful woman without having any particular historical basis. The purpose of this book is to emphasize faithfulness to the law.
Other Hellenistic Jewish Legends: 3 Ezra is a new form of combination of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah with a fairy tale motif, written after Judith and Esther. The book is dominated by the purpose of edification. 3 Maccabees talks about the story of the miraculous salvation of Jews in Egypt from the persecution by Ptolemy IV, and the story is in the form of pure fiction or legendary narrative. It might have been written around 40 CE or at the end of the 1st century BCE.
Tobit: It was composed around 200 BCE and transmitted in Greek in the LXX, but one Hebrew and three Aramaic fragments of this book were found in Qumran. The literary genre of this book may be defined as the Hellenistic romance or the Oriental-Jewish wisdom novel, or the fairy tale, as all three elements are equally present.
(e) From Wisdom to Philosophical Apologetics
The Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach
This work, translated into Greek around 130 BCE by the author’s grandson, survives in Hebrew fragments found in the Cairo Geniza, Qumran, and Masada. Likely written in the first decade of the second century BCE, it is a collection of wisdom literature, comprising didactic proverbs, hymns, psalms of thanksgiving, laments, and other compositions. The author is believed to have been a member of Jerusalem's educated aristocracy, espousing a conservative stance on Jewish tradition.Qoheleth
Incorporated into the Hebrew canon shortly before the composition of Sirach, the book of Ecclesiastes reflects a more critically influenced Jewish wisdom, shaped by Hellenistic ideas. However, later editors introduced Orthodox interpolations that softened its skeptical tone, particularly regarding the nature of justice and the inevitability of death.1 Baruch
Composed likely towards the end of the Hasmonean period and preserved in Greek, 1 Baruch contains prayers, psalms, and poetic wisdom speeches. The work combines elements of Jewish tradition with a broader Hellenistic literary context.Epistle of Aristeas and Pseudo-Phocylides
The Epistle of Aristeas, though traditionally attributed to a figure from the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, is likely a later composition blending Jewish wisdom with Greek philosophical ethics, written at least a century after the claimed date. It was designed to promote the authority of the Septuagint and appeal to Gentile audiences. Similarly, the Pseudo-Phocylides, written in the second or first century BCE, uses the pseudonym of the Greek poet Phocylides to offer Jewish wisdom and ethical teachings interwoven with Greek proverbs and philosophy.4 Maccabees
Written by a Jewish philosopher around the mid-first century CE, 4 Maccabees presents a diatribe on the power of human reason, equating it with the obedience to the law. The text assimilates Jewish wisdom into the broader framework of Hellenistic philosophy, particularly in its focus on virtues such as righteousness, prudence, mercy, and fortitude.Wisdom of Solomon
Composed in the first century BCE, this text, included in the Septuagint, appears less Hellenized than other Jewish wisdom literature. It includes theological reflections on Israel’s history, critiques of pagan idolatry, and royal invitations to embrace wisdom. Theologically, the Wisdom of Solomon radicalizes the concept of wisdom, presenting it not as a privilege for Israelites alone but as an essential human pursuit.
(f) Philo of Alexandria
Philo, born into a Hellenized Jewish family in Alexandria around 20 BCE, was well-versed in Greek philosophy and history. He possessed a command of the Greek language and engaged with Greek poets and philosophical texts with ease. While specific details of his Jewish education are scarce, it is likely that he maintained ties with the Jewish community and was familiar with Hellenistic Jewish scriptural interpretation and apologetics. Philo held Roman citizenship and played a prominent role in Alexandria's Jewish community.
Philo’s writings can be divided into two main categories: apologetic works, which defend Jewish traditions and laws, and writings that reflect his deep engagement with Jewish religious life. His apologetic commentaries, aimed at educating Gentile (and Jewish) audiences, followed the Old Testament covenant formula and provided philosophical interpretations of the Hebrew scriptures. The first book of his apologetic commentary, On Genesis, integrates elements of Plato's Timaeus and Pythagorean speculation, introducing the concept of the Logos as a central philosophical theme. His subsequent commentaries address the figures of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.
In his Decalogue work, Philo divides the Ten Commandments into two categories: the first five, which pertain to duties towards God, and the last five, which concern duties towards others. This division serves as the foundation for his broader interpretation of the law. Another significant text, De Virtutibus, discusses four cardinal virtues: fortitude, kindness, conversion, and nobility of thought.
Philo also authored an allegorical commentary on Genesis, which begins with the second chapter and extends through to the final chapter. This commentary addresses a range of philosophical, ethical, political, scientific, and theological questions, all explored through allegorical exegesis. Notable works within this series include De Cherubim, which explores the symbolic meanings of the flaming sword and figures like Adam, Eve, Cain, and Abel, and De Agricultura, which analyzes Noah’s actions in relation to agricultural themes.
Through his writings, Philo reinterprets the Pentateuch as a Hellenistic text, transforming its mythical content into Greek philosophical discourse. His allegorical method bridges Jewish religious traditions with Greek philosophy, merging Jewish wisdom with the concept of Logos—a divine, rational principle pervading the cosmos. His approach reflects the cosmological vision of Middle Platonism, which subordinates the earthly to the heavenly, the visible to the invisible, and the material to the rational.
While Christianity did not have a direct connection with Philo’s thought, his philosophical ideas began to influence Christian thinkers, particularly from the second generation of Christians onward. Prominent theologians such as Clement and Origen adopted Philo’s allegorical interpretation and Hellenistic Jewish religious philosophy, making his works a significant influence on early Christian thought.
Summary from: Koester, Helmut. History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.
Further reading in this blog:
Greek Philosophical schools and Philosophic Religion (New Testament Background, part 1)
History of Israel from Babylonian Exile to the Roman Conquest (New Testament Background, part 2)
Jewish Sects and Movements during the Intertestamental Period (New Testament Background, part-3)
Other readings (not endorsing)