Apocalypticism and Eschatology in the New Testament
This post will discuss apocalypticism in the New Testament. To explore this, the post will discuss the different meanings of apocalypticism and Jewish apocalypticism as the background of Christian apocalypticism. The post will further explore the apocalyptic motifs in New Testament writings and their theology.
1. Meaning of Apocalypticism
The term ‘apocalyptic’ is derived from the Greek word apokalyptēin, which means “to reveal” or “to unveil.” This term has three main uses: literary genre (apocalypse), a kind of eschatology (apocalyptic eschatology), and a historical religio-social movement (apocalypticism).[1] Firstly, Collins defines apocalypse as “a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world.”[2] This definition is based on form and content. This definition covers a large number of old Jewish, early Christian, Gnostic, Greek, Latin, and Persian books which deal with the present condition in light of the future. Further, Collins distinguishes two main types of apocalypse: those with (Otherworldly Journey) and without (Historical Apocalypses) otherworldly journeys.[3] Historical Apocalypses include Daniel, the Book of Dreams, and the Apocalypse of Weeks in 1 Enoch, Jubilees, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch. Otherworldly Journey Apocalypses include the Book of the Watchers, Astronomical Book, Similitudes, 2 Enoch, 3 Baruch, Testament of Abraham, Apocalypse of Abraham, Apocalypse of Zephaniah, and Testament of Levi 2-5.[4] Secondly, apocalyptic eschatology deals with the eschatology that reflects on apocalyptic literature. Apocalypticism as a movement can be understood as a social-spiritual movement of the minority group in society, who wish to express their hope in an alternative universe in the context of persecution.[5]
2. Origin and Historical Setting of the Jewish Apocalypse
Though the pseudonymity of apocalypses makes it difficult to fix the origin and historical matrix of apocalypticism, there are different views about its origin and setting. Mowinckel and Gunkel emphasized the Persian influence in raising apocalypticism.[6] Later, Otto Plöger argued that post-exile society was divided into theocratic parties, who interpreted prophetic eschatology in terms of the Jewish state, and eschatological parties (identified as the proto-Hasidim group), who waited for the eschatological predictions of the prophets.[7] He concludes that apocalypse originated within the proto-Hasidim group in the matrix of the inner conflict of Israelite society.[8] Rowley, Hanson, and others think that the apocalyptic tradition grew out of the Old Testament prophetic tradition.[9] Following Plöger, P. D. Hanson has argued that apocalypticism is a development of Israelite prophecy, which originated in the inner-community struggle between visionary prophets and hierocratic[10] (Zadokite) priests, which took place from the sixth through the fourth centuries B.C.[11] Though Rowley accepts apocalypticism as a child of Israelite prophecy, he also recognized the Persian influence upon apocalypse.[12] But G. von Rad, who denies this view, argues that apocalypticism has features of wisdom literature of the Old Testament, such as dualism, radical transcendence, esotericism, and Gnosticism, and he thus proposed that apocalypticism arose from the wisdom tradition.[13] Though von Rad did not gain much scholarly support for his proposal, the influence of the wisdom tradition on apocalypticism is recognizable. However, the wide consensus is that Jewish apocalypses were written or revised during times of social or political crisis. Horsley opines that Jewish apocalyptic literature and movements were products of Jewish crisis and persecution under Greco-Roman imperialism and manifestations of Jewish resistance to imperialism that encroached upon Jewish faith and society.[14] Apocalyptic literature offers consolation and exhortation in the face of persecution. Thus, the major consensus might be that prophecy remains a major influence on apocalypticism, though the apocalypse may also have influences from other elements, such as Persian elements, the wisdom tradition of Israel, and so on, which seemed to develop in the context of the socio-religio-political crisis of Jewish society.
3. Characteristics of the Jewish Apocalypse
3.1 Literary Character
a) Pseudonymity: The authors of the apocalypses used the names of famous, venerable persons from ancient times as the authors of their books. Such usage might have been a device to increase the authority of the book.
b) Visions and Symbolism: Apocalypses use symbolism, which might have originated from their own visions, dreams, and the Old Testament.
c) Survey of History from a Perspective of the Past: The authors of the apocalypses usually present the course of history in the form of prophecy (usually allegorically) from the standpoint of one who was in the past.
d) Esoteric Character: Apocalyptic books claim that revelation or divine secrets made known to an individual through visions or dreams are subsequently recorded for the encouragement of the righteous. The meaning of the visions and dreams is often not clear, and information about the future is kept away from general knowledge. Apocalyptists believe that these books were hidden books, which were handed down in a long tradition of secrecy.[15]
3.2 Theological Characteristics
a) Dualism: Apocalyptists were dualists. They perceived two fundamental components to all realities: the forces of good, headed by God, and the forces of evil, headed by Satan. God was associated with good angels, light, righteousness, and life, while Satan was associated with demons, darkness, sin, and death. Human beings are subjected to these cosmic powers.[16] Further, apocalyptists applied dualism to the concept of history. Like Jewish thought, apocalyptic thought also perceives that history is linear, but apocalyptic thought differs from Jewish thought in understanding that the age to come will have a sharp break, not a simple continuation of the line of history or this age, as Jewish thought perceives.[17] Apocalyptists had pessimism about the present age, and their otherworldly hope was directed toward the age to come.[18] The present age is characterized by sin, death, war, violence, and famine, but God will establish a new age—where there will be no characteristics of this age—at the end of this age by destroying evil powers. Further, dualism is applied to their ethical thoughts as well. Apocalyptists divide human beings into the wicked and the wise (Daniel 12:10), the righteous nation (Jub. 24:29), a righteous generation (Jub. 25:3), and the Gentiles who are sinners (Jub. 23:24; 24:28).
b) The Eschatological Climax: Apocalyptic literature talks about the end-time tribulations and catastrophes, which are known as the messianic woes. Further, God will intervene for the righteous at the end, when the suffering of the righteous would be at its height. God will redeem the righteous, especially Israel, and vindicate the universe and the evil-doers, especially the enemies of Israel. The final vindication will involve the day of judgment. God will judge everyone, including the dead, and God will give eternal rewards to those who were with God and eternal punishment to those who were not on God’s side. The eschatological hope is also reflected in their faith in the resurrection of the dead.[19]
c) Imminence: Apocalyptists believed that God's vindication was going to happen soon. They were living in crisis and suffering, which led them to have a desire for the imminent end of this present evil world. Thus, in their thought, the end of the world was imminent.[20]
d) Supernatural and Cosmic Dimension: Though apocalypticism has strong Jewish elements, the scope of the apocalyptic vision is cosmic. Angels, divine beings, human beings, Satan, and anti-God forces are active in the cosmos.[21] Jewish apocalyptists talk about the transformation of the cosmos. God will create a new creation with Edenic conditions.
e) Divine Control and Sovereignty: God is in control of history, which is moving toward its goal. History is already planned and written in advance. This age will end with the supernatural intervention of God, and thereby a new age will be inaugurated.[22]
f) Messiah and the Messianic Kingdom: The Messiah appears in apocalyptic literature as an eschatological figure who will take a leading role in the coming kingdom. Apocalyptic literature talks about two messiahs: a messiah from David and a messiah from Levi.[23] Moreover, apocalypticism has two views about the Messianic Kingdom: some understood the Messianic kingdom as the arrival of an eternal kingdom, while others understood it as a temporary Messianic kingdom that would be succeeded by an eternal kingdom. The conception of a temporary Messianic kingdom would function as a transition between the present evil age and the age to come, monarchy and theocracy, and the Messiah to the eternal reign of God.
4. Apocalyptic Motifs in the New Testament
The significance of apocalypticism for New Testament studies was first highlighted by A. Schweitzer and J. Weiss. Following this lead, Käsemann claims that “apocalyptic is the mother of all Christian theology.” Further, Dunn points out that Christianity, in its beginnings, was an eschatologically enthusiastic movement, largely marked by apocalyptic traits.[24] The rest of this paper will discuss the apocalyptic motif in the New Testament and its theology.
4.1 Jesus and Apocalypticism
Dunn points out the following characteristics of the message of Jesus in connection with apocalypticism:[25]
- Jesus used the apocalyptic language of two ages (Mk. 3.29/Matt. 12.32; Mk. 10.30/Lk. 18.30; Mk. 11.14/Matt. 21.19).
- The pessimism-hope dualism, as in apocalypticism, is absent in Jesus’ thought because Jesus perceived that eschatological hope was already present in his ministry.
- Like apocalyptists, Jesus also anticipated eschatological trials (Mt. 5.11f/Lk. 6.22f; Mt. 6.13/Lk. 11.4; Mk. 10.39; Mt. 10.23,24), unnatural enmity (Mt. 10.34-36/Lk. 12.51-53; Mk 13/Mt. 10.21), and cosmic catastrophe (Mk. 13.24f) before the End. He also spoke about final judgment and repentance.
- Jesus’ thought about the end seemed to be imminent (Mk. 1.15; Mt. 10.7/Lk. 10.9,11).
- Though the supernatural and cosmic dimensions of the end events are not clearly portrayed in the thought of Jesus, the gospels provide several accounts of the defeat of Satan by Jesus.
- Unlike the Jewish apocalyptists, Jesus did not put forward any eschatological calendar. However, he retained an element of unknowability about the end time.
- Unlike contemporary apocalypticism, Jesus proclaimed realized eschatology.
Dunn concludes that “Jesus not only proclaimed God’s eschatological power as already active but also proclaimed the final consummation of God’s purpose for the world as imminent and did so in the language of apocalyptic. To that extent, the message of Jesus is a part of the trajectory of apocalyptic.”[26]
4.2 Q Community
Q mainly contains apocalyptic and wisdom materials. The Q apocalyptic material took shape when the community underwent severely stressful cultural conditions and increasing opposition from outsiders.[27] Q condemns the present generation as a “brood of vipers” (Q 3.7) and an “evil generation” (Q 7.31-34; 11.29). Several sayings threaten apocalyptic judgment for those who would not receive the message of John the Baptist, Jesus, and the disciples of Jesus (Q 6.47-49; 12.8). According to Q, the judgment will occur very soon, and the representative of God (Jesus) will be the judge, appearing suddenly without warning. John the Baptist used apocalyptic imagery of judgment-fire (Matt. 3.10-12). He may have adopted this imagery from apocalyptic portrayals of judgment as a river of fire (Daniel 1.10; 1 Enoch 14.19; 17.5; 67.7; IV Ezra 7.36ff and so on). The metaphor of the harvest is common in both prophetic and apocalyptic literature.[28] (Cf. Joel 3.13; IV Ezra 4.30). Matt. 3.10 states that “the axe is already at the root of the trees.” All these metaphors may have been influenced by the apocalyptic concept of the messianic woes. Moreover, another possible apocalyptic influence may be traced in his message, which included hope for those who repent and judgment for those who do not.
Tuckett argues that the beatitudes of Q are eschatologically oriented.[29] Though Q is aware of the delay of the parousia, it emphasizes the imminent return of Jesus since the signs are already evident.[30] The parable of the thief and unfaithful servants (Q 12.39-46; 42-46) implies the imminent return of Jesus and the unpredictability of the parousia. Further, Q projects the imminent appearance of the Son of Man as a judge. The parousia of the Son of Man will be visible, sudden, unanticipated, and will bring disaster to those who are not prepared for it.[31]
4.3 Mark 13
The wide scholarly consensus is that Mark 13 is a conflation of apocalyptic materials, Jesus’ sayings, and editorial additions.[32] Though it is known as the “little apocalypse,” several features of Jewish apocalypticism are absent in Mark 13. This chapter opens in the context of a conversation about the temple in Jerusalem. Theissen observes that Mark 13 contains prophecies of the end time in three phases.[33] a) As part of the beginning of a new world, there will be cosmic catastrophe (vv. 5-8) and persecution of the disciples (vv. 9-13). Jesus warns the disciples about deception (v. 5) through false messiahs (v. 6). War, rumors of war, earthquakes, uprisings, and famines are part of the divine plan before the coming of the new kingdom (vv. 7,8). The focus shifts to the suffering and persecution of disciples from v. 9 onwards. The phrase “they will deliver you up to councils; and you will be beaten in synagogues; and you will stand before governors and kings for my sake” in v. 9 indicates that the disciples will be persecuted by Jews, non-Jews, and religious and political authorities. However, the suffering of the believers will create an opportunity to witness to Jesus before secular authorities. Moreover, the suffering of the disciples will jeopardize their lives and faith, break up their families, and foster antagonism from close relatives and others (vv. 12-13). Such division among humans is an indication of the end time in Jewish apocalyptic writings.[34] Despite persecution, Jesus assured the presence of the Holy Spirit with them in the midst of persecution (v. 11).
b) The second phase of the end time is tribulation. It is described that the “abomination of desolation” will manifest (v. 14). This expression might be taken from Daniel 9.27; 11.31; 12.11, where it refers to the pagan altar erected by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in the Jerusalem temple.[35] The phrase indicates that something blasphemous will stand in a place where it does not belong, causing great distress.[36] Moreover, Mark 13.14-23 talks about the distress that will come upon Jerusalem and the Jews.[37] Verses 15-18 describe the instant flight of Jews when the abomination of desolation appears. The tribulation will come suddenly, and there will be no time to save anything from one’s home. The traditional expression which implies the tribulation of both Jews and others in Daniel 12.1 can be found in the language of v. 19. The terms “distress/tribulation” (vv. 19, 24) along with “those days” (vv. 17, 19) are technical terms in Jewish literature that imply the woes of the end time.[38] The phrase “the Lord had not cut short those days” in v. 20 has analogies within Jewish apocalyptic literature. The concern here is that God will show his mercy in such tribulation, without which no one can survive, including the elect of God. Further, vv. 21-22 explain the appearance of false Christs and prophets at the end of time, signaling that the end is near and also marking the climax of the tribulation.[39] Verse 23 exhorts, “so be on your guard,” indicating that believers should remain obedient and watchful, despite the many signs of the end time that Jesus foretold.
c) The appearance of the Son of Man in glory to rescue the elect (v. 24ff) is the final phase of the end time according to the prophecies in Mark 13. Mark blends Old Testament language of cosmic signs, the Day of the Lord, and the Son of Man in vv. 24-27. Further, this section depicts a cosmic collapse characterized by elements found in Jewish apocalyptic writings, such as the darkening of the sun and moon, the fall of the stars from heaven, and the surrendering of the heavenly bodies.[40] Moreover, following the tribulation, Jesus will appear as the Son of God in glory. Jesus will appear in “clouds.” In the Old Testament, clouds symbolize God’s presence and glory. Though the cosmic collapse will occur, God will gather his elect when Jesus returns in glory and power.
The chapter concludes with an exhortation from Jesus to his disciples. The parable of the fig tree (vv. 28-31) indicates the nearness of the end. The natural process of the fig tree in summer and winter is compared to the sequence of events leading up to the appearance of the Son of Man.[41] The angels, Jesus, and human beings do not know the time of the end (vv. 32-37). Thus, everyone should be watchful and vigilant.
4.4 Apocalyptic Ideas in Pauline Writings
Rowland observes that Paul had an apocalyptic way of thinking.[42] Further, De Boer notes that Paul applied apocalyptic language not only to the parousia of Jesus but also to the gospel that he proclaimed.[43] “The whole of God’s saving activity in Jesus Christ, from beginning to end, is apocalyptic.”[44] Furthermore, Beker argues that Jewish apocalyptic motifs dominate Pauline thought, and the coherence of the gospel consists of the apocalyptic interpretation of the death and resurrection of Jesus.[45] He points out the following apocalyptic motifs in Paul: a) The faithfulness and vindication of God: Paul believes that the God of Israel, who fulfilled self-vindication and faithfulness to God’s promises in Jesus Christ, will fulfill the same for all of creation. Moreover, Paul links his gospel to theocentric worldviews, and consequently, the promises in the Old Testament that were not fulfilled in the gospel of Christ will give new hope for their fulfillment in the kingdom of God.[46] b) Universalism: Paul connects universalism with the vindication of God: “The universal and comprehensive reign of God signifies the depth and breadth of God’s self-vindication, which will only come about when the whole world is vindicated.”[47] Paul denies elitism toward Israel in the Old Testament and extends salvation and vindication to all.[48] c) Dualism: Paul applies dualistic motifs to both the age to come and the present age, as well as to the resurrection and death of Jesus as marks of the incursion of the future age into the old age. Paul also uses dualism to mark the forces of the future that already work in the present world. The apocalyptic dualism emphasizes God’s call to the church to fight against the present godless world. This battle is expressed in several ways: the battle of spirit against flesh (Gal. 5.17), faith in Christ against the law (Gal. 2.15-21), the foolishness of the cross against the wisdom of this world (1 Cor. 1.18-25), and the battle between the powers of life and the powers of death (Rom. 5.38-39).[49] d) Imminence: Paul emphasizes the imminent end of time and the return of Jesus. The theme of imminence is related to necessity, unpredictability, and the dialectic of patience and impatience. The significance Paul gives to the resurrection of Jesus makes the imminent return of Christ necessary. Christ’s resurrection, the first fruits (1 Cor. 15.23), is connected to the final resurrection of the dead. The Holy Spirit, the agent of the future glory of God, is present in this age, indicating the imminent return of Jesus. Unlike apocalyptic writings, Paul does not provide a timetable for end-time events but emphasizes the unpredictability of the end. Furthermore, the dialectic of patience and impatience in Paul’s life, such as the combination of “his passionate hope with his insistence on sobriety (2 Cor. 5.13)” and his “daily pragmatic-pastoral care,” reflects Paul’s passion for sobriety and his impatience controlled by his patience in preparing the world for its future glory.[50]
Although this paper has attempted to summarize the apocalyptic thought of Paul as discussed by Beker in The Triumph of God: The Essence of Paul’s Thought, it may be essential to note the important texts that contain apocalyptic motifs: 1 Thess. 4.13-5.11; 2 Thess. 1.5-2.12; Romans 8:19, 23; and 1 Cor. 15.[51]
4.5 The Book of Revelation
The book of Revelation falls within the category of apocalyptic literature. Like other apocalyptic writings, this book was born out of the severe crisis and persecution faced by Christians. Further, the consensus is that the confrontation between Christianity and the Roman Empire, and the imperial cult, might be the background of this book. The book of Revelation contains several apocalyptic numbers and imageries, heavenly beings, visions, and heavenly journeys. Further, apocalyptic theological motifs in Revelation are: dualism, messianic woes, imminent end, and confidence in God’s sovereign control.[52] Revelation talks about the appearance of the risen Christ to John in Chapter 1, seven letters to the churches (2-3), the Vision of the Heavenly Throne Room (Rev 4–5), judgment portrayed under the symbolism of the opening of seven seals of the document in God’s hands (Rev 6:1–8:5), the sounding of the seven trumpets (Rev 8:6–11:19), and the outpouring of seven bowls of wrath (Rev 15–16), the coming of Christ and the city of God, and the destruction of anti-God forces.[53]
- Theology of Apocalyptic Motifs in the New Testament
Following are the theological aspects of the New Testament apocalyptic motifs:
a) Imminence of the end: The imminent end of time is indicated by a variety of images such as the thief who comes in the night (Mt 24:43; Lk 12:39; 1 Thess 5:2, 4; 2 Pet 3:10; Rev 3:3; 16:15), the master who returns after a long journey (Mk 13:34–36; Lk 12:35–38, 42–48), and the bridegroom who arrives in the middle of the night (Mt 25:1–13). The same motif is also found in Revelation: “what must soon take place” (Rev 1:1) and, “Surely I am coming soon” (Rev 22:20).[54]
b) Cataclysmic end: The apocalyptic understanding of the New Testament predicts catastrophes such as famine, natural disasters, war, earthquakes, betrayal, plagues, and signs in the heavens (e.g., Joel 2; Mk 13; Rev) and severe tribulation for the disciples of Jesus, Jews, and others (Dan 12:1; Mk 13:24; Rev 7:14) before the final judgment and return of Jesus.
c) Battle between the Forces of Good and Evil: There will be a severe battle between the forces of good, such as God, God’s angels, and people, and the forces of anti-God, such as demons and followers of Satan. War imagery motifs, especially in Revelation, clearly predict ultimate victory for God and the people of God, and the complete defeat of evil (Rev 12:7; 13:1–1; 19:19; 20:9; 16:1–11; 14:19–20; 20:10; 18:9–10; II Thess 2).
d) Return of Jesus: The New Testament places the parousia of Jesus at the center of its apocalyptic understanding. The resurrection of Jesus is understood apocalyptically as the inauguration of the new age. The Holy Spirit is present in this present age as a guarantee of future redemption. Thus, the already-not-yet tension is one of the features of New Testament apocalypticism. This eschatological tension encourages believers to endure hardship in this present age, along with preparedness and watchfulness for the parousia of Christ by keeping the ethics.
e) Resurrection and Judgment: The New Testament predicts the resurrection of the dead. 1 Cor 15 talks about the bodily resurrection of those who died in Christ. Revelation 20 also discusses resurrection. God will give eternal rewards and punishments to all humans according to their works on earth during their lives (1 Cor 5:10; Rev 20:11-15).
f) Transformation of the cosmos: The apocalyptic understanding of the New Testament predicts a complete transformation of the cosmos, which is interconnected to the redemption of the sons of God and the parousia of Jesus (Romans 8:19, 23). Moreover, the understanding of the new heaven and earth implies that God will recreate the entire cosmos (2 Pet 3:13; Rev 21:4; cf. Is 33:24; 65:20).
Evaluation and Conclusion
a) Apocalypticism can be understood as a literary genre, a socio-religious movement, and a kind of eschatology that might have grown out of the heavy influence of the Old Testament prophetic tradition. One may also not deny the influence of Persian and Old Testament wisdom traditions under the context of the socio-religio-political crisis of the Israelites.
b) As scholars such as Schweitzer, J. Weiss, Käsemann, and Dunn have acknowledged, it is important to consider Jewish apocalypticism as a background to understand Christian apocalyptic understanding, which might have been influenced by Jewish apocalypticism at large. Though it may be difficult to find the apocalyptic genre in its strict sense in the New Testament, no one can deny the large presence of apocalyptic motifs in New Testament writings. It can be concluded that early Christian communities were heavily influenced by Christian apocalyptic understandings.
c) There are striking similarities between Christian apocalyptic theology and Jewish apocalyptic theology, but the former is different from the latter through its Christ-centeredness and its affinity with other Christian theological motifs, such as ecclesiology, realized eschatology, etc.